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Let’s further consider the target recipients for law dissemination. To a large extent, the subject matter and purpose of a law determined the audience for whom it was formulated and disseminated. Qin and Western Han laws can be classified into two types based on function: criminal laws and cdministrative laws. First, we’ll examine criminal laws. Here is an example: Killing someone with malice aforethought or killing someone during a fight is to be punished by execution in the marketplace. In case of killing someone with negligence or during a frolic, it is to be punished by paying a redemption fee for death penalty; injuring someone [in such circumstances] is to be exempted from punishment. This law prescribes punishments based on whether individuals kill or injure others in different circumstances. Like this once, criminal laws of Qin and Han were designed to define criminal behaviors and prescribe corresponding penalties, functioning similarly to modern criminal laws. Hence, I’ll use the two modern legal concepts “conduct rules” and “decision rules” to elucidate the functions of Qin and Han criminal laws. These laws first serve as “conduct rules,” informing the people about criminal conducts and guiding them to regulate and constraint their conducts to prevent crime. Additionally, they act as “decision rules,” providing officials with guidance in making judicial decisions and imposing penalties for crimes. Therefore, it was crucial for these laws to be disseminated to both officials and the public to ensure awareness and compliance. This law determines punishments based on whether individuals kill or injure others in various circumstances. Similarly, criminal laws of Qin and Han were designed to define criminal behaviors and prescribe corresponding punishments, functioning like modern criminal laws. Hence, I’ll utilize the modern legal concepts of “conduct rules” and “decision rules” to elucidate the functions of Qin and Han criminal laws. These laws first serve as “conduct rules,” informing the populace about criminal behavior and guiding them to regulate their actions to prevent crime. Additionally, they function as “decision rules,” providing officials with guidance in making judicial decisions and imposing penalties for crimes. Therefore, it was crucial for these laws to be disseminated to both officials and the public to ensure awareness and compliance. Next, let’s discuss recipients of administrative laws. Here are two examples. They belong to statutes on forwarding documents. I have chosen these two because they are related to dissemination of documents of imperial edicts: Every ten lǐ (approx. 4.16 km), establish one courier station. From the Yangzi River in Nan Commandery, south to the southern boundary of Suo County, every twenty lǐ (approx. 8.32 km), [establish] one courier station. This statute regulates establishment of courier stations among different regions. Then the other one: When couriers forward documents, in one day and one night, they are [collectively] to travel 200 li (approx. 83.2 km). When in traveling, they do not meet the norm by half a day: cane 50 [strokes]; more than half a day to a full day: cane 100 [strokes]; more than a day: fine two liǎng of gold. This statute specifies the travel distance for forwarding documents in one day and one night by couriers, with corresponding penalties for failure to comply. As these two statutes illustrate, administrative laws established rules defining duties of officials and governing administration of government affairs. In the administrative systems of Qin and Western Hans, various offices (guan 官) and bureaus (cao 曹) established in counties (xian 縣) were tasked with specific duties as assigned by law. The classification and organization of administrative laws often aligned with the functions of these offices. For example, Statutes on Finance regulated activities of finance bureaus. Furthermore, certain laws, especially ordinances, addressed affairs of the moment in a certain area. For instance, an ordinance on Passes and Fords found in the Zhangjiashan tomb was made for the purchase of horses in Changsha state. Disseminating such a law empire-wide would have been unnecessary, as they were relevant only to a specific region. Thus, depending upon the location, rank, and official duties of the offices, the laws promulgated and used by offices must have been quite different. This is reflected in a statute found in the Shuihudi Qin tomb: Counties each inform metropolitan offices residing in their counties to copy the statutes used by them. Administrative laws regulated government affairs, much like modern laws, with many being irrelevant and complex for the general populace and were unnecessary transmitted to them. However, administrative laws concerning tax declarations, household registration, and labor obligations required active participation from the common people and directly impacted their daily lives. Therefore, it was crucial to disseminate these laws to them. For example, a Yuelu ordinance on administrative procedures for marriage emphasized its promulgation to the common people. From the xinchou day of the third month of the thirteenth year, for marrying women and daughters, tripartite tallies are required. Those people who initiate lawsuits without tallies shall not be heard according to the statutes of the court. [Cases in which] no tallies were made, and a lawsuit was initiated before the promulgation of this ordinance shall be tried according to the statutes on the clerk of the capital. Prudently publicize the ordinances and let black-headed people clearly know it. After discussing about recipients of laws, we will further consider how a new law was copied and transmitted. First, in Qin and Western Han China, essential transportation conditions were created to enable effective communication. Public roads and facilities were built and improved, transforming the central government into the hub of an extensive network of highways linking the entire empire. Additionally, the standardization of official documents facilitated efficient administrative transmission and communication. Under these conditions, the Qin and Han empires devised effecient methods to deliver various types of official documents across the vast territory. Furthermore, Statutes on forwarding documents, as previously mentioned, specified the use of the most efficient courier system for transmitting documents of imperial decisions. According to these statutes, courier stations were established depending on population density and terrain. Couriers were required to deliver documents 200 li in a day and a night, with corresponding penalties for delays. Women and children were not allowed to send documents of imperial decisions, and couriers assigned to deliver imperial edicts were not permitted to engage in other tasks. These laws emphasized the importance of swiftly and securely transmitting imperial decrees. Next, we will investigate how documents of imperial edicts were delivered by couriers. According to the Liye materials, Qin provinces served not only as administrative and military centers but also as hubs for collecting and dispatching government documents. When dispatching an official document, a province could opt to relay it through a network of prefectures according to a sequential order, or choose to expedite delivery by sending it directly and separately via courier from the province to subordinate offices. The latter method is illustrated by the text “Forwarded by courier to Qianling. From Dongting”. To enhance efficiency, couriers were normally natives familiar with the natural terrain, public transportation, and communication conditions of the local area. Additionally, “Evaluations of courier documents” found in Liye and Juyan were used to assess whether government documents delivered by courier met law requirements. These records highlight the Qin and Han governments’ efforts to strictly manage and control the transmission of documents by courier in accordance with law. Further discussion on an administrative record of the actual dissemination of a law would enrich our discourse. An example can be found in “The Document of the Edict of the Fifth Year of Yuankang” dating back to 61 BCE during the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han. This imperial edict is excavated and reconstructed by the Japanese scholar Oba Osamu. As we see from the slide, the document consists of seven bamboo slips, the left three slips record the legislative process and the content of the imperial edict pertaining to the laying down of weapons and relevant ritual rules for the summer solstice of the fifth year of Yuankang; meanwhile, the right four slips document the promulgation of this imperial edict from the central court to local offices. Its layout deserves attention. We can see the phrase (meaning approved by the Emperor) is prominently displayed in larger characters positioned above petition text. This visual arrangement serves to highlight the authority of the emperor, thus granting both the decree itself and their copies with legitimacy throughout the dissemination process.