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TOPIC 1. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION. Sensation is the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system. Sensory receptors are located in the sensory organs throughout the body. Stimulation of the senses is an automatic process. It is stimulated by energy and chemicals. Perception is not mechanical. Perception is an active process in which sensations are organized and interpreted to form an inner representation of the world. Absolute Threshold is the minimal or weakest amount of energy that can produce a sensation. It was developed by Gustav Fechner. Absolute Threshold of the senses.1. Vision, a candle viewed 30 miles away on a dark night.2. Hearing, watch ticking from about 20 feet away.3. Taste, 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved in 2 gallons of water.4. Smell, about one drop of perfume diffused throughout a small house.5. Touch, the pressure of the wing of a fly falling on a cheek from a distance of about 0.4 inch. Subliminal Stimulation is sensory stimulation below a person’s absolute threshold for conscious perception. We received it, but we are not consciously aware of it. John B. Watson was a pioneer. Difference threshold is the minimal difference in intensity required between two sources of energy so they will be perceived as being different. Weber’s Constant is the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived.JND or Just noticeable difference is the minimal amount by which a source of energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived. Signal detection theory is the view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical, biological and psychological factors. Feature detector neurons in the sensory cortex that fire in response to specific features of sensory information such as lines or edges of objects.For example the bus approaching you. Sensory adaptation is the processes by which organisms become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude and less sensitive to stimuli that are constant or ongoing in magnitude. It is the lessening of attention to a stimulus that is not subject to conscious control. As well as the diminishing responsiveness of our sensory systems to prolonged stimulation. It occurs directly in the sense organ, not in the brain. Sensitization or positive adaptation is the type of adaptation in which we become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude. Desensitization or negative adaptation is when we become less sensitive to constant stimuli. Visible light is the part of electromagnetic spectrum that stimulates the eye and produces visual sensations. Hue is the color of light as determined by its wavelength. Cosmic rays. The wavelengths of these rays from outer space are only a few trillionths of an inch long. Radio waves. Some extend for miles. Pure yellow is considered to be the brightest light. Cornea is the transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball. Iris is a muscular membrane whose dilation regulates the amount of light that enters the eye. Pupil is the black looking opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye. Lens. Focuses the image on the retina. Retina. Inner surface that contains rods and cones and cells called photoreceptors. Photoreceptors. Cells that responds to light. Rods. Sensitive only to the intensity of light. Cones. Transmits sensations of color. Bipolar cells. Neurons that conduct neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells. Neurons whose axons form optic nerve. Optic Nerve. Nerve that transmits sensory information from eye to the brain. Fovea. Where vision is most acute. Blind spot. Visual Acuity. Presbyopia. Brittleness of the lens. Wavelength of light determines its color or hue. Value of a color is its degree of brightness or darkness. Saturation. How intense color appears to us. Complementary. Descriptive of colors of the spectrum rhat when combined produce white or nearly white light. Afterimage. Lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed. Occurs because photochemical activity in the retina continues even when the eyes are no longer experiencing the original stimulus. THEORIES OF COLOR VISION. Trichromatic theory. The theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red light, some to green and some to blue. Opponent Process Theory. The theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red or green light, some to blue or yellow, and some to the intensity of light. Trichromat. You can discriminate among the colors of the visible spectrum or you have normal color vision. This means you are sensitive to red-green, blue-yellow, and light-dark. Monochromats. People who are totally color blind. They are sensitive only to lightness and darkness. Dichromats. Partially color blind people. They can discriminate only between two colors. Red and green or blue and yellow and the colors that are derived from mixing this colors. VISUAL PERCEPTION. Closure. The tendency to perceive broken figure as being complete or whole. Perceptual Organization. The tendency to integrate perceptual elements into meaningful patterns. Figure ground perception. States that people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the background. Proximity. The perceptual tendency to group together objects that are near one another. Similarity. The perceptual tendency to group together objects that are similar in appearance. Continuity. The tendency to perceive a series of points or lines as having unity. Common fate. The tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together. Top- down processing. The use of contextual information or knowledge of a pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern. Bottom up processing. The organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or form an image of the pattern they compose. Motion Perception. Is the ability of the nervous system to discern the distance and speed of a moving object in relation to the eye that is seeing the object. Depth Perception. Ability of humans and other sighted animals to see objects as having volume and to see relative positions of objects in a three dimensional environment. A type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed from the side. Sound or Auditory Stimulation is the vibration of molecule in a medium such as air or water. Pitch is to Frequency or the number of cycles as expressed in herts or HZ. 1 HZ id equal to 1 cycle per second. Loudness is to Amplitude. Measured in decibels or DB. 0 decibel is equal to the threshold of hearing. THE EAR. Is shaped and structured to capture sound waves. Has three parts. The outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. Cochlea. The inner ear, the bony tube that contains the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti. Basilar membrane. A membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea. Organ of Corti. The receptor for hearing that lies on the basilar membrane in the cochlea. Auditory nerve. The axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to the brain. Sensory Deafness. Ear damage to the inner ear. Conductive Deafness. Damage to the middle ear. COCHLEAR IMPLANTS. Contains sounds and electronic equipment that transmits sounds past damaged hair cells to stimulate the auditory nerve. The Chemical Senses. Smell and Taste. Flavor. A complex quality of quality of food, and other substances that is based on their food, texture, and temperature as well as their taste. Olfactory nerve. The nerve that transmits information concerning odors from olfactory receptors to the brain. Taste cells. Receptor cells that are sensitive to taste. Taste buds. The sensory organs for taste containing taste cells and are located mostly in tongue. SKIN. The senses of warmth, cold, pain, and touch (pressure) located in the skin. Skin sensations are the source of relatively simple experiences such as itching and tingling, pain due to injury, and feelings of hot and cold. Touch and Pressure. Touch and pressure sensation refers to the perception of a maintained distortion of the skin, such as an indentation. Thermosensation. The ability to detect temperature and triggers our reflex to withdraw from painful heat or cold. Pain. A concept of sensation that we feel as a reaction to the stimulus of our surroundings, putting us in harm’s way and acting as a form of defense mechanism that our body has permanently installed into its system. Kinesthesis. The sense that informs us about the positions and motion of parts of our bodies. Vestibular sense. The sense of equilibrium that informs us about our bodies’ position relative to gravity. They are located somewhere in the ears. ESP or Extrasensory perception. ESP. Perception of objects or events through means other than the recognized sensory organ. Precognition. Ability to perceive future events in advance. Psychokinesis. Mentally manipulating or moving objects. Telepathy. Direct transmission of thoughts or ideas from one person to another. Clairvoyance. The perception of objects that do not stimulate the known sensory organs. TOPIC 2. LEARNING. Learning is a key area in psychology. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that arises from practice or experience. Cognitive psychologists define learning as the process by which organisms change the way they represent the environment because of experience. Classical conditioning involves ways in which we learn to associate events with other events. It is involuntary, automatic learning. Classical conditioning. A simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus. By Ivan Pavlov.