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GOAL SETTING THEORY In their goal setting theory of motivation, Locke and Latham (1990) stated that, given goal commit ment, a specific challenging goal leads to higher task performance than a vague goal, such as "do your best." This assertion has been supported in over 500 empirical studies (e.g., Latham, Locke, & Fassina, 2002; Locke & Latham, 2002). A number of variables have been shown to mod erate the relationship between goal difficulty and performance. These include, but are not limited to, ability, feedback, task complexity, and situational constraints (Locke & Latham, 1990). For personality variables in the goal setting framework, however, controversy exists as to whether goals are better predictors of action than are traits. For example, Yukl and Latham (1978) found that goals predicted both performance and satisfaction better than a measure of need for achievement. Subsequently, an increasing number of studies have shown that self set goals mediate the relationship between person ality variables (for instance, need for achievement and conscientiousness) and performance (Locke & Latham, 2002). With regard to moderators, Locke, Shaw, Saari, and Latham (1981) concluded that the only consistent finding regarding personality variables in goal setting research is data that are incon sistent. Locke and Latham (1990) reiterated this conclusion a decade later. An explanation for the inconsistent research findings is that goal setting is a "strong" variable that attenuates the effect of personality variables (e.g., Adler & Weiss, 1988). This is because a spe cific challenging goal provides cues to guide be havior and performance expectations, and hence leaves little room for personality-based individual variation in work behavior and subsequent perfor mance. Consequently, there has been minimal in terest in investigating personality or stable individ ual difference variables as moderators of goal effects. The necessity for now doing so is evident from the rapidly accumulating findings regarding a person's goal orientation. Goal orientation predicts and explains not only the tasks people choose, but how they behave when the acquisition of knowl edge or ability, rather than sheer effort or persis tence, is a prerequisite for good performance on a complex task. Both ability and task complexity are moderators in goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).