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Geography case studies. Topic 2: distinctive landscapes. Jurassic coast: Lulworth cove is an example of headland and bay formation. It formed by the soft rock dissolving faster than harder rock. The layers of hard and soft rock alternate across the coast and over time the erosion forms a curve of headlands sticking out and bays heading into the land. Durdle door is an example of cave, arch stack formation. The cave is formed by hydraulic action on a crack on the surface of the water. It starts to get bigger into a cave and more hydraulic action turns it into an arch. The top of the arch gets weathered away until the cliffside splits and leaves a stack in the water. Chesil beach is an example of longshore drift. It’s formed by waves on a beach going up and down. When the waves go up, it’s called swash and happens at an angle because of prevailing winds. Backwash is when it goes back into the water straight down, it transports material along the beach and eventually forms a spit at the river mouth. River Thames: The south-east region in which the river Thames flows is the driest in the country with rainfall of 690 mm per year which puts pressure on water resources. London gets 40% of its water from the groundwater in chalk aquifers which is rock that holds water. Meanders in the river are formed from lateral erosion because there is little downwards gradient. On the outside bend, fast flowing water erodes the river bank outwards makes it wider. The inside bend is slower and deposits the material as a load. Rejuvenation occurs because the river has been on the same course since the ice age. Since then, temperatures have risen, and sea levels have changed. When sea levels fall, the river gained energy because the river bed was lower which caused it to erode downwards into its old floodplain. Each time the river is rejuvenated, it formed a new floodplain at a lower level, leaving the old one as a river terrace at a higher level. Topic 3: urban futures. Birmingham: Diversity: Birmingham is the second most diverse city in the UK. During 1950s, most immigrants came from east Europe, Africa and middle east. In 2011, 53% of Birmingham’s population was white British. Migrants brought their own culture and religions with them. The character of the city is changes with different shops and places of worship. City centre regeneration: In the city centre, the bullring is a large shopping centre built in the 1960s. by 1990s it was run down and filled with traffic, so in 2003 the council decided to regenerate the entire centre. Regeneration included Brindleyplace which is an area near the old canals including the national indoor arena and international Convention centre. Gateway plus redesigned the train station to have the bullring on top of it and the library of Birmingham opened as the largest library in the city. HS” is a new railway being built linking London and Birmingham directly which is planned to open in 2026. Inequality: Inequality is a major challenge in Birmingham. While some areas are rich, other s are poor. Birmingham is divided into wards with different employment levels which vary with the closeness to the city centre. Closer the centre, the more unemployment there is, and the suburbs are richer areas. Unemployment is linked to the education, child poverty and household income. Housing prices is also important as the cheaper housing is located more central compared to expensive houses in the suburbs so poorer people have to live centrally. Sustainability: Economic sustainable plans are to increase knowledge on green economy by using fewer resources, use low-carbon transport and more green space. Social plans are to lower energy costs with more efficient buildings, better air quality, affordable transport and adaptability to extreme weather. Environmental plans to lower carbon generation, reduce energy demands with alternative energy sources, better waste management and managed ecosystems. The library of Birmingham opened in 2013 and is a sustainable project. It keeps sustainability by recycling 95% waste, minimises carbon emission by using energy efficient systems, uses natural light to save electricity, harvests rainwater to save water and promotes sustainable transport by sheltering bikes. Initiatives like Birmingham energy savers to repair old housing with more efficient boilers and double glazed windows and district energy schemes to supply the city with energy from combined heat and power plants to save money. Istanbul: History: Began as the Byzantium of the Greek empire in 7BC and later became capital of the roman empire under Constantine in 300AD where its name was changed to Constantinople and was the first Christian empire. In 1453 the city was conquered by ottomans who were Muslims which grew to control much of south-east Asia and north Africa. The empire declined during the 19 century when turkey was established as a country and the capital as Istanbul. Growing population: In the past 60 years, Istanbul has grown dramatically from under 1 million in 1950 to 15 million by 2015. Most of the growth is due to national migration from other parts of turkey for the better living conditions and work opportunities. Initially, migrants had to work informally by being street vendors, porters or waste recyclers. The fastest growth was during 1980s when population doubled in less than ten years. Istanbul is home to most ethnic minorities including 3 million Kurds from Anatolia and smaller Greek, Armenian and Jewish communities. Only 28% of the population is born in the city. There isn’t much international migration but lots of tourism and it is now one of the most popular tourist destinations. The location for Istanbul is not ideal as it divided by the Bosphorus strait. In order for the city expand, it has to grow coastally as the land is very mountainous and now stretches 100km east to west. Historic core: Topkapi palace was built on a prominent site overlooking the golden horn and was home to the ottoman kings. The golden horn is an inlet that separates the old parts of Istanbul. The sea of Marmara connects Istanbul with the Mediterranean sea where trade by sea and tourists arrive. Faith is the oldest district and is the site of the original city and is home to the grand bazaar from 1461. Beyoglu is the inner suburb which used to be the run-down area but is now being refurbished into offices and apartments. Galata bridge crosses the golden horn with a tram link. The old roads aren’t suited for heavy traffic so new systems are being put into place to reduce congestion. Changing role: Istanbul is home to 20% of Turkey’s population but produces the half the country's wealth. It is vital for manufacturing and culture of the country and is surrounded by farmland producing cotton and oil. The main industries are textiles and food processing, but tourism is also a major factor. As the city has grown, its population has shifted from the core. From 1985-2012, population of faith fell while suburbs doubled. Suburbanisation has happened at the same time as jobs and services have moved out. New centres have opened with the growth of the financial and service industries. Squatters: Migrants that couldn’t afford housing built their own on vacant plots of land usually on the outskirts. These settlement are known as Gecekondu. They lack basic services like water and electricity, but residents built solutions by getting water tanks and pumps. Traffic: Istanbul is one of the most congested cities in the world with average speeds of 8kmh. most commuters spend 2 hours in traffic daily. The main problem is the Bosphorus as it divides the two halves of the city with only 3 bridges. Solutions are to increase public transport with taxis and minibuses which are most common but are decreasing with the growing number of cars. Company buses would help as it would provide workers or students a means of transport. Rail is very unused as it is very small. Ferries are used to cross the Bosphorus but don’t link with other transport. Integrated system: The most sustainable form of transport would be the integrated transport system where all transport forms link together. in 2013, the first railway under the Bosphorus opened and when complete, it’s expected to increase rail from 5% to 30%.