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Others indicate how single neurons send information (single-unit recording) or integrate information from other neurons (local field potentials and EEG). And the techniques vary in whether they are more sensitive to rapid changes in brain activity or to slower changes, and whether they collect information from single neurons, small portions of the brain, or the brain as a whole. Perturbation techniques (TMS, drug administration, lesion studies), by contrast, alter brain function, and thus can be used to evaluate how specific brain regions or systems contribute causally to specific cognitive processes. Each technique carries distinct strengths and limitations, so the results obtained from multiple techniques are much more compelling than results derived from only a single approach. Every subsequent chapter will highlight the ways in which multiple experimental paradigms and research methods combine to provide a richer understanding of the neural basis of cognition. Even though many aspects of cognition may at first seem particular to human cognitive function (e.g., language or reasoning), research using animal models often informs research in human participants, and vice versa. Convergence and complementarity also apply across research topics. Often there are striking commonalities in the sets of brain regions engaged by seemingly different sorts of tasks (e.g., selective visual attention and decision making), which can spur researchers to investigate processes that might be common across domains of cognition. Cognitive neuroscientists must develop facility with a variety of research methods, even if they do not use all (or even most) of those methods in their own research. Conclusions Cognitive neuroscience provides a rich opportunity for students, despite the inherent complexity of human mental life and the need to develop some familiarity with the strengths and limitations of many different technical approaches. Given its remarkable breadth, exploring cognitive neuroscience in a textbook is a daunting task. To make the job manageable, this book takes an explicitly student-centered approach. Each chapter includes fundamental background material, as well as examples of recent developments in the field. The sequence of cognitive functions progresses from basic perceptual and attentional processes, through memory and emotions, to executive processes, decision making, and finally evolution and development. There is ample coverage of research methods, and how conclusions about cognitive function are best understood by applying multiple experimental approaches and considering a variety of data. The aim in every chapter is to describe how cognitive neuroscience has extended the scientific scope of both cognitive psychology and neuroscience. As authors, our primary goal is to help students gain an appreciation of the intellectual and methodological principles of this exciting new discipline, which combines many of the best qualities of the social and natural sciences. By understanding the approach of cognitive neuroscience and its conclusions, students will gain a deeper understanding of the cognitive capabilities that define human beings.