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Overview of Theories of Development. The theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. Freud – Proposed the psychosexual theory of development.  Believed early childhood was the most important age/period it developed. Plays large role in personality development.  5 stages – if completed successfully, result is a healthy issue. If issues aren’t resolved at a certain stage, then fixation occurs Erikson – Psychosocial development theory.  Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one’s entire lifespan.  Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory.  8 stages Vygotsky – Sociocultural development theory.  Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for higher function of learning.  Child internalizes interactions with others. Kohlberg – Moral development theory .  Focused on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong.  Moral reasoning develops through cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) – 6 levels total In general, Freud and Erikson were interested in how personality develops, and Vygotsky and Kohlberg were interested in how cognition develops Freud’s Psychosexual Development. Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure – the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts.  Fixation was due to concept of libido – a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development.  First 5 years are crucial (Mnemonic – OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES) • Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital Depending on what stage we’re at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part.  For oral stage – focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals. Oral stage – age 0-1 yrs., libido is centered around baby’s mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely dependent on caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort.  If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers. Anal stage – age 1-2, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for competent adults.  If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness. Phallic stage – age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex (desire for sexual involvement with other parent) also develops. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent.  If fixation occurs, cause sexual dysfunction. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Latent period – no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills.  Fixation doesn’t develop into adult fixation. Genital stage – back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others.  No adult fixation – person is mentally healthy. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development . Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society  Another key difference between his and Freud’s theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one’s life (not just childhood).  Assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality. Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages. I. 1 yrs., trust vs. mistrust. If an infant’s physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is hope, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust. II. 2 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will (independence). If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame. III. 3-5 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt – as if they’re annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. IV. 6-12. industry vs. inferiority. Where teachers take an important role in a child’s life, and child works towards competence. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty. V. 12-18, adolescence. identity vs. role confusion Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness. VI. intimacy vs. isolation. Try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness. VII. 40-65, Generativity vs. stagnation so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture.. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive. VIII. 65+, integrity vs. despair slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death. Vygotsky Sociocultural Development. Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition.  Focussed on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of higher order learning. Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions:  Attention, sensation, perception, and memory.  These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes – higher mental functions. Most develop from skillful “tutor” – a model, ex. parent/teacher.  Independent learning and thinking • 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other). • 2. Zone of proximal development – part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can’t do and can do. • 3. Language – the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves – happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.